Why Did Most of the Civil and Military Leaders of Shu Kingdom Meet an Untimely Demise in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms?

In the chronicles of the Three Kingdoms, the premature demise of many of Shu’s civil and military figures remains a poignant enigma. Consider the lamentable case of Ma Chao, who met his end at the tender age of forty-seven due to illness. A commanding general renowned for his robust physique and prowess in battle, his untimely demise raises profound questions.

Upon closer scrutiny, it becomes evident that a multitude of Shu’s commanders met untimely ends, often succumbing to the embrace of mortality while still youthful and robust. Figures like Joeyna, who departed prematurely, seemingly succumbing to “natural causes,” alongside Ma Chao, include Fa Zheng, Liu Ba, Zhuge Qiao, and Guan Xing. Even the roster of illustrious generals enumerated in the “Memorial of Departure” is not devoid of those who met an early demise: Deng Tong, Liu Hao, Ding Li, Bai Shou, Ma Yu, Yan Zhi, and others, their candles extinguished in the bloom of their years.

Indeed, even the venerable Zhuge Liang and Huang Zhong find themselves counted among the prematurely departed. Huang Zhong, though hailed as a veteran, met his end not in his dotage, but rather shortly after the Battle of Mount Dingjun, two years subsequent. It is perplexing to conceive how a warrior of such stalwart valor, who could charge into the fray and cleave through adversaries like Xiahou Yuan, could meet so premature a fate.

The phenomenon of these robust, relatively youthful figures succumbing to natural demise suggests a deeper complexity. To attribute it solely to the inadequacies of medical knowledge seems overly simplistic. After all, Shu also boasted a plethora of venerable figures, such as Du Wei and Liao Hua, whose lifespans were notably protracted. Even among the famed generals, Zhao Yun stands out as a paragon of longevity.

This perplexing matter was once pondered by a compatriot in conversation with a neighbor from Beijing, a gentleman known as Mr. Tang, who, though a practitioner of herbal medicine, held a fervent passion for the annals of the Three Kingdoms. His reflections, tinged with sagacity, hinted at deeper truths. In scrutinizing the premature demise of the valiant generals of the Shu Kingdom, certain commonalities emerge. Firstly, the majority of those who met an untimely end were seldom natives of the Western Shu region. Figures like Ma Chao hailed from the land of Western Liang, while Huang Zhong originated in Changsha. In contrast, the indigenous populace of Western Shu exhibited longevity, exemplified by individuals like Qiao Zhou. Secondly, a significant number succumbed shortly after entering the realms of Chuan or Han Zhong. Notable instances include Zhuge Qiao, Guan Xing, and Fa Zheng, all meeting their fate shortly after participating in campaigns in Han Zhong. Thirdly, few of Liu Bei’s trusted generals experienced premature deaths, as exemplified by the enduring lives of Zhao Yun and Chen Zhen.

Mr. Tang posits that there lies a certain rationale within these occurrences, linking the natural demise of Shu Han’s civil and military officials to three intangible assailants.

The first is the unique humid and hot climate of the Shu region. The climate of Shu, characterized by its humidity and warmth, coupled with short daylight hours, has long been associated with the presence of “miasma.” The prevalence of ailments such as rheumatism is relatively high, compounded by the fact that during the era of Shu Han, there were no provisions like Sichuan peppercorns to aid the locals in dispelling dampness and wind. The indigenous residents had adapted to this climate, while individuals hailing from cooler northern regions were, according to traditional Chinese medicine, prone to incubating “heat toxins,” leading to various illnesses. Someone arriving from the dry, semi-desert regions of the northwest, such as Ma Chao, might, unfortunately, fall into the category unable to acclimate to this climate.

The second factor is Sichuan’s unique well salt. Sun Quan once contemplated strangling Shu Han by controlling its salt supply, only to realize the impracticality of such a scheme due to Sichuan’s abundant well salt. Sichuan’s well salt is indeed a remarkable commodity. Its quality is superb, making it exportable—a valuable currency for the Shu Kingdom. The best salt wells of Shu were situated in Zigong, once known as Gongjing County, where salt production dates back to the Warring States period.

However, during that time, regions like northwest Jingchu suffered from a scarcity of table salt, resorting to bland diets. Salt was cherished as a precious commodity. When the abundance of such fine salt was discovered in Shu, it was consumed excessively, leading to arterial sclerosis and a higher incidence of heart diseases. Among the generals who followed Liu Bei into Sichuan, many passed away not long after him, despite being considerably younger. Could it be attributed to the perils of excessive salt intake—a slow, insidious form of self-harm?

Certainly, another plausible explanation lies in the realm of trace elements. There exist significant disparities between well salt and sea salt regarding the levels of iodine, sulfate, and calcium ions, among others. The imbalance in trace elements among the outsiders of Shu could indeed jeopardize their health.

Lastly, a covert suspect in this lethal equation is the water of Hanzhong. Mr. Tang, who once served as a rural doctor in the Hanzhong region, remarked on the deceptive quality of its water. Although seemingly pristine, the water’s actual quality was poor, with elevated levels of strontium, thallium, and other contaminants. While it remains uncertain if such water quality issues are widespread throughout Hanzhong, if so, it could provide a plausible explanation for the premature demise of countless civil and military figures of the Shu Kingdom. Because they were transferred from Shu to Hanzhong for several years, they fell ill and passed away, such as Zhuge Qiao and Guan Xing. They were dispatched to the grassroots to train in the frontline military. At that time, the frontline military was stationed in Hanzhong. Figures like Huang Zhong and Fa Zheng had been campaigning in Sichuan for many years. It cannot be said that they were unaccustomed to the climate of Sichuan. However, shortly after serving in Hanzhong, they passed away. As for Zhuge Liang himself, judging from the symptoms, he likely suffered from stomach cancer. Could it also be related to the water he drank?

As for those who lived long lives, it illustrates that Shu indeed lives up to its reputation as the Land of Abundance, truly a nourishing place. As long as you can adapt, longevity is attainable. The fact that locals in Sichuan rarely die young during the era of Shu is evidence. If outsiders adapt, they can also live well, such as Ma Dai and Wei Yan, who probably had relatively robust health and strong adaptability. Wasn’t Ma Chao also in good health? Good health doesn’t necessarily mean strong adaptability. Many of our American colleagues are robust, but they immediately get stomachaches after drinking tap water in China, unlike the children in the village.

A peculiar team is Liu Bei’s old core members, such as Liu Yan, Zhao Yun, and Liao Hua, who rarely died young. I suppose, according to this theory, it makes sense. Because Liu Bei spent half his life in exile, these people followed him through his wanderings across China. Their adaptability must have been exceptionally strong—they wouldn’t have survived otherwise. Therefore, their ability to adapt to different environments naturally surpasses that of ordinary people. Have you noticed how long-lived the old Red Army members are? They were the cream of the crop selected during the Long March.